Using animation as a stimulus for children's writing - George Summer's 'Just some morning tea'

I've just watched the lunchtime news and seen a report about a short animated film made for an A level project by 17 year old George Summers.  BBC Spotlight have it on their facebook page.

I think this would make a great stimulus for children to write.  See what you think.  Well done George - I'll look out for future films!

Building Cars Live - a good resource for teaching the passive voice

Watching the BBC’s Building Cars Live this week I felt I should post my thoughts on using this as a resource in Year 6 to teach/consolidate learning of the passive voice.  I’ve linked a few clips and some of the transcribed sentences I would use to exemplify the passive.  There are only a couple of examples in each clip and this is important for children to note.  The passive should not be overused and is only necessary in certain situations:

• We don’t know who the agent is: The artworks were stolen overnight on Friday. (We don't know who stole them.)
• The agent is not important in the text: The cars are transported to destinations in Britain and around the world. (We are not interested in who transports them.)
• You want to be vague about who is responsible: Responses to the Consultation Document have been considered and amendments made. (We are not informed who is responsible for the consideration and amendment.  This use of the passive often appears in official writing!)
• The focus of the sentence is the person or thing being acted on, so the agent may not be mentioned or will appear later in the sentence: Mini Coopers are manufactured at the Oxford plant.  Mini Cooper frames are constructed by robots.
• Texts that rely on the passive voice, e.g. some scientific writing: The seeds were planted in the pots and left in different places to germinate.  Observations were made each day to monitor growth.
• In some general truths: Rules are made to be broken.  They were made for each other.

Duvet wearing robots that can open car doors

http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p035f11v

This clip contains the following sentences, which I would unpick for children as examples of how the passive is formed: a form of the verb ‘be’ as the auxiliary, followed by the past participle of the main verb.  Both uses are present simple passive.

• The jackets are used to keep the robots at an ambient temperature …
• All this data is carefully collected.

James May meets a singing trolley called Dougal

http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p035dwsq

• Toyoto are obsessed with their quest for continuous improvement.  (This sentence highlights that in some passive constructions we use ‘with’ instead of ‘by’.)
• That’s steered by a wiper motor from an Avensis.   (Children will be able to see that we can use contracted forms of ‘be’ as the auxiliary for the passive construction.)

Meet the factory

http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p035cv4x

• The following example show the first use of the passive voice constructed with the auxiliary but, because we have another passive used in the same sentence, the auxiliary is omitted to make the structure more efficient: Steel panels are pressed in Swindon; engines manufactured in Birmingham …
• This example repeats this structure, but with a list of passives: Once built the cars are driven for the first time, tested, inspected, wrapped and sent out into the world.

How to build a car in less than 2 minutes

http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p035dk01

This clip shows the car’s construction ‘journey’ through the factory, without commentary.  This could be used for children to produce examples of sentences using the passive voice (e.g. The car frame is welded by robots.  The car is dusted in the Emu, using ostrich feathers.  Cars are parked in the huge car park.)  Before they view this clip, they will need to have seen and discussed a number of the other clips from the programme so they understand the speeded-up content.  They will need to see this clip a few times to recognise the procedures and I suggest you model writing one or two passive structures first.

As a group or class, collect their sentences in sequential order to explain the processes in constructing a car.   Trying to structure an explanatory text using the sentences from the above activity, will highlight that overuse of the passive doesn’t work well.  Re-writing using a few, well-placed passives (chosen for correct reasons) and a range of other verb forms will help children understand that variation of verb forms and tenses is required in this type of text, but will also provide opportunity for developing:

• appropriate style and vocabulary to maintain the reader’s interest throughout.
• make choices in drafting and revising writing, showing understanding of how these enhance meaning.
• proof read for grammatical sense (e.g. subject/verb agreements, correct tense use).

I’m sure teachers will be able to find more examples in some of the other clips on the BBC website.  Actually the language used during filming contains many examples of other verb tenses or forms appropriate to non-fiction writing, so could be a useful resource for revision.

Prepositions: the difference between 'into/in to' and 'onto/on to'

I've recently been asked about why these prepositions are sometimes written as one word and other times are separated.

In, into, on and onto are all prepositions.  We usually use 'in' and 'on' to give information about position of the subject in relation to something else.  For example:

• He splashed in the puddles.
• She stood on the wall.

The prepositions 'into' and 'onto' are usually used to indicate direction, movement or transformation:

• He raced into the lead.
• She climbed onto the wall. 
• She turned him into a frog.

Sometimes either preposition can be used grammatically in a sentence.  However, consider the difference in meaning in the following sentences:

• The boy jumped in the pool.
• The boy jumped into the pool. 

Although both constructions are possible, there is a subtle difference between them.  In the first, the boy is in the pool and jumping around; in the second, he starts out of the pool and the direction of the jump means he ends up in the pool.  It is the semantics which must be considered when deciding which preposition to use.

A further complication arises when the verb in a sentence is a phrasal or prepositional verb.  Many verbs are constructed by using a verb and a preposition: hand in, turn in, give in, build on, rely on, etc.  When these are followed by 'to', we really need to think about the sense we are creating for the reader.  Joining the final preposition of the verb phrase to what follows may change the meaning altogether if care is not taken.  Consider the following sentences:

• My homework should be handed in to my teacher by Thursday.
• My homework should be handed into my teacher by Thursday.  (Not possible - the adverbial phrase 'to my teacher' cannot be joined to the 'in'.)

• We need to turn ourselves in to the police. 
• We need to turn ourselves into the police. 

• I'll give in to keep the peace.  (Correct as the 'to' starts an infinitive verb structure and non-finite clause)
• I'll give into keep the peace.  (Not possible)

• Her success can be built on to ensure her future. (Correct - the non-finite clause 'to ensure her future' has to be separate.)
• Her success can be built onto ensure her future.  (Not possible)

• His father could be relied on to keep him safe. (Correct - the non-finite clause must be separate.)
• His father could be relied onto keep him safe. (Not possible).

We can see from the above examples that we have to consider firstly whether the 'to' that follows the verb is acting as a preposition or the start of an infinitive verb structure.  Once we have decided that the 'to' is acting as a preposition, we need to consider whether we want to indicate direction, movement or transformation.  If so, then 'into' or 'onto' will be appropriate prepositions to use.

Text cohesion

When we write, we want to link and sequence our ideas so that our text flows and easily makes sense to our reader.  We use several different language devices to help hold our text together and signpost to the reader how different parts relate to each other.  This is called cohesion.

Much of the thinking around cohesion comes from Halliday and Hasan (1976).  They proposed 5 types of cohesive ties: reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction and lexical cohesion.  Details about these different ties is substantial, but the summary below should more than cover what we, as primary teachers, need to know about text cohesion.

Reference

Within a text, ideas are expressed and elaborated upon.  Reference is the identification of a specific word or idea mentioned in the text, which provides continuity for the reader as they try to develop the meaning of what is written.  It signals that particular information is to be retrieved from the text.  Reference within a text can be anaphoric (referring back to something already mentioned) or cataphoric (referring forward to an idea not yet mentioned).  Let’s look at some examples.

Referring to something already mentioned (anaphoric reference)

Pronouns (personal and possessive)

• My husband has retired.  He is enjoying himself.
• I found a pencil case in the playground.  Sophie told me it was hers.

Pronouns (relative)

• The red car, which was being driven by the robber, screamed up the road.
• The politician, who was not very popular, left the venue through the back door.

Determiners

Usually determiners are used at the beginning of a noun phrase, but they can be used as pronouns, replacing a noun.

• King Henry had already married twice, but that didn’t stop him marrying again.
• Would you like some cakes?  Yes, I’ll take these please.
• I went into the shop to buy one book and came out with another.
• I saw a red and a blue blouse, but I didn’t like either.
• The protesters were asked to leave.  Some refused.
• He says one thing and does another.

The following determiners can be used in this way

• demonstratives: (this, that, these, those)
• Universal determiners: each, every, all, both
• Partitive determiners: some, someone, anyone, anybody, no-one, none, neither, either
• Quantifiers: many, much, few, little, several, enough
• Numerals – cardinal and ordinal, one, the first

Nouns
Various nouns can refer to items already mentioned and often they indicate some feeling as well (often used in persuasive texts):

• Children spell better if they learn 10 spellings a week.  This claim/assumption/lie/argument/promise/rumour/suggestion is open to debate.
• During training, the footballer broke his leg.  This accident/disaster was a blow to the club.

Various words or phrases which have a comparative function, e.g. adjectives and adverbs

• The door opened and a cat shot across the road.  Ten minutes later the same cat was seen in the car park.
• Roses are very beautiful.  The same is true of orchids.
• She wore a red dress, with a matching hat.
• Sam believed Santa would arrive down the chimney at midnight.  Mum knew differently.
• The 5^th brigade surrounded the castle.  The Rifles were positioned similarly.
• I thought life was wonderful.  I had no reason to think otherwise.

Referring forward to things that are about to be mentioned (cataphoric reference).

This type of reference is not used as frequently, but the following examples show how it can be created:

• Well, you might not believe this, but I don’t like sweets much.
• These were the facts.  On a cold winter’s day in December…
• The following account is based on notes from that period.
• Hercule Poirot drew the following conclusions: that the murder had been committed by the policeman.
• In the next chapter, we will examine the theory in detail.
• The details below will provide you with the truth.
• There is only one actress who could have been chosen for this role: Dame Judi Dench.

Substitution
The difference between substitution and referencing can seem a little confusing at first glance.  Whereas referencing relates to the meaning of the text and retrieval of a specific thing mentioned, substitution is the replacement of one item by another and it relates particularly to the replacement of the wording in the text.  The following examples highlight the difference between these.

• My battery has run out.  I need to recharge it.  (This is reference, because the ‘it’ is referring to the ‘battery’ previously mentioned.)
• My battery has run out.  I need to get another one.  (This is substitution, because ‘another one’ does not refer to the same battery previously mentioned.

Substitution can be nominal (replacing the noun or noun phrase), verbal (replacing the verb or verb phrase) or clausal (replacing the whole clause); the substitute item has to have the same structural function as the item it is replacing.  The most usual substitutes are:

Nominal substitution – one, ones, same.  The substitute often carries some information that distinguishes it from the original item, e.g. a different modifier. 

• I love eating smarties, especially the orange ones.
• The cheese sandwich was good, but the smoked salmon one was better!
• My father is a doctor.  All being well, I will be the same.

Verbal substitution – do, (sometimes ‘do so’), which may substitute just the verb or the verb plus other elements.

• Have you washed up?  I will do later.
• Why don’t you complain to the council?  I have done.
• Words do not come to mind as easily as they used to do.

Clausal substitution – so, not

• Is there going to be a storm?  The weather forecaster says so/not.
• Will that be enough?  If so, I will be relieved.  If not, I shall cry.
• Are you all right?  I think so.

Ellipsis
In English people often omit words rather than repeat them.  Different types of ellipsis are as follows.

Noun/pronoun ellipsis

In compound sentences, often the subject is omitted before the second verb, e.g. The dog barked and jumped.

The noun can also be omitted by using ‘have’ – She probably has a temperature – she certainly looks as if she has.

Verbal ellipsis (usually lexical verb although sometimes the auxiliaries can be ellipted

• Have you been playing?  Yes I have.
• What have you been doing? Swimming. 

If you have just described an action or a state and you want to introduce a new, contrasting subject, you can use ‘than’ + the auxiliary verb.

• She can see better than he can.
• He was earning more than I was.

To change the verb tense/form or modality:

• Cook leeks exactly as you would onions.
• They would stop if they could.
• Very few of us want to go, although we know we must.
• The poster should have created more interest than it has.

Often used in passive:

• I’m sure it was repeated on the news.  It must have been.

‘Do’ is often used.  (also with negative)

• Do the children want to come?  I think they do.
• Does the parrot talk? Yes he does.  No he doesn’t.
• Did John Lennon write that song?  I’m sure he did/didn’t.

Adjective ellipsis – when using the verb ‘be’

• I think you are right.  I’m sure I am.
• She was great!  I thought she might be.

 

Clausal ellipsis

• With infinitive verb.
• He advised her to visit a doctor, but she couldn’t afford to.
• Don’t tell me if you don’t want to.
• At last he agreed to do what I asked him to
• Do you think parents know how long planning takes?  No, I don’t think they do.
• Has she got any idea about how he feels?  She should (have).
• Will she be happy there?  She’d better (be).
• Who was going to switch on the Christmas lights?  The mayor was.

Conjunctions
This term in cohesion relates to connections made internally within sentences (conjunctions), and connections made externally between sentences and paragraphs (connecting adverbs, sometimes referred to as conjuncts or transition words).  For more information, click here.

Connecting adverbs (conjuncts) create cohesive links throughout a text, linking sentences and paragraphs to help the reader maintain meaning.  For instance, in story language, using time conjuncts will help the reader with the sequencing of the information: that afternoon, the next day, later that evening.  Whereas, in a persuasive text, you can assist your reader through the text by signalling the points you are adding: moreover, in addition, furthermore.

Considering which connecting adverbs are appropriate to which text type is important for cohesion.  We would not necessarily use the same conjuncts for a story as we would an explanation or a non-chronological report.

Lexical cohesion
Lexical cohesion relies on vocabulary choice.  Halliday and Hasan provide two different types:

• reiteration, which includes repetition, synonyms, close synonyms and superordinates (words which include the meaning of another word, e.g. animal is a superordinate word for cat).
• collocation, which includes words which are associated or belong together.

‘What is it, you daft animal?’ murmured Jed, as his pony flinched at the sudden noise.  Soothed by his master’s voice, the young horse shook his mane and settled.  Jed wondered once again if the money was well spent on this colt, when he could have picked a more experienced horse for the job.

In the above paragraph, we have repetition of horse, synonyms of pony and colt, animal as a superordinate and we also have the word mane, which is closely associated with horses.

Verb tense and form
Cohesion in text is also created by maintenance of the same tense/form and by correct selection of tense, for example when expanding verb phrases.  Experienced writers are able to use movement between tenses and forms in a sophisticated manner for effect, but children often find maintaining consistency more problematic.  They may start a recount in the past tense and move into the present tense later in the text, or slip into the past tense in a set of instructions, when they started in the imperative. 

 

References

Halliday, M.A.K. & Hasan, R. (1976). Cohesion in English. London: Longman.

Unpicking the term 'connective': conjunctions and connecting adverbs (conjuncts)

 Until recently many teachers had been confronted in training and literature with the term ‘connective’.  This was used within education for some years to refer to words which linked ideas, but explanation around this term was confusing - for both teachers and children.  Fortunately, the new National Curriculum does not contain this term, but it may be useful to understand what it referred to.

The term was used as an umbrella term for all linking words and phrases, but there was no distinction placed on how these words and phrases could be used for different grammatical purposes.  The following explains the different ‘connectives’.

Compound sentences Use clauses joined by co-ordinating conjunctions –  most usually and, but, (and) then, yet, or, nor eg: Suzie had baked a cake for the occasion but it didn’t rise very well. The children splashed and shrieked in the pool. Complex sentences Use clauses joined by subordinating conjunctions - such as because, so, as, when, until, although, if eg: The pilot jumped from the cockpit  as the plane dived towards the earth.  As soon as he saw his owner, the dog barked.    Connecting adverbs (conjuncts) Maintain the cohesion of a text in several basic ways addition – also, furthermore, moreover, in addition opposition – however, nevertheless, on the other hand reinforcing – besides, anyway, after all explaining – for example, in other words, that is to say listing – first(ly), first of all, finally indicating result – therefore, consequently, as a result indicating time – just then, meanwhile, later