Pre- and post-modification

I was recently asked to explain pre- and post-modification.  

Pre- and post-modification are terms used for words, phrases and clauses that add information to a noun. By adding these you create a noun phrase.  

Premodification is where information is added before the noun, e.g determiners, adverbs, adjectives:

Post-modification is adding a phrase or relative clause (which is a type of subordinate clause) after the noun.

If we use the noun 'horse', we can, for example, add premodifiers:

the (determiner)

very (adverb)

beautiful (adjective)

and post-modifiers:

with the flowing mane (prepositional phrase)

or

which could gallop like the wind (relative clause because it starts with a relative pronoun - which - and includes a verb 'could gallop')

The very beautiful horse with the flowing mane...

The very beautiful horse which could gallop like the wind...

Using commas with fronted adverbials

The new National Curriculum requires children to be taught to use fronted adverbials and to indicate these as a grammatical feature by ‘using commas after fronted adverbials’. (Years 3-4 Programme of Study).  This statutory requirement appears in appendix 2: Vocabulary, grammar and punctuation under Year 4.

I have no disagreement at all about teaching children to front adverbials, since these enable them to create different effects for their readers and also provide variation in sentence structure.  However, I think the statement ‘Use of commas after fronted adverbials’ needs a little mediation, since not all fronted adverbials will require to be punctuated.  In fact, hidden away in the glossary of the National Curriculum, it does state ‘When writing fronted phrases, we often follow them with a comma’ (my italics). 

The task for us is to teach children:

• What function adverbs, adverbial phrases and adverbial clauses have in a sentence, e.g. where, when, how, why things happen.
• What words, phrases and clauses can fill the adverbial positions in a sentence.  When considering single word adverbs, children need to recognise that these can end in –ly, but also include other words too, such as away, off, well.  Adverbial phrases are often prepositional phrases, but could also consist of a single word adverb an a premodifying adverb, e.g. extremely well, really quickly, very conscientiously.  Adverbial clauses are subordinate clauses that fill the adverbial position.  Very often we teach children the subordinate structure for these, but don’t highlight the adverbial function (other functions of subordinate clauses are nominal and relative).
• How to construct adverbial phrases and clauses, e.g. a prepositional phrase = a preposition + a noun or noun phrase.
• How and when it is appropriate to punctuate adverbs, adverbial phrases and adverbial clauses, especially when these are fronted.

Children need to understand that the purpose of punctuation is to help a reader (who is usually not present) understand clearly what the writer intended.  I don’t think that this is discussed explicitly enough with children.  It is not obvious from the classroom context that the purpose for writing is usually for a reader who is not present at the time of writing.  In many instances, children are writing for a teacher, teaching assistant or peers who are in the same room, maybe sitting at the same table.  This means that any misunderstandings in what they have written can be explained verbally. It is extremely difficult for children to read their writing as another reader would: they know exactly what they had in mind and reading with somebody else’s ‘eyes’ is a skill that needs to be learnt.

So, how can punctuation of fronted adverbials help a reader understand the text more clearly?  Well, most punctuation is a matter of convention, rather than definite ‘rights and wrongs’.  In spite of what some may say about ‘rules’ of punctuation, use of commas is optional in many cases and very much depends on personal preference, avoiding ambiguity and promoting clarity of message.  This clarity is not just about the sense the reader can obtain from the text; it is also about creating the effect the writer desires.

Bearing what I have just said about optional use and personal preference I would simply offer the following ideas about use of commas with fronted adverbials.  Not everyone would agree with me!

Adjuncts (adverbials that are integral to the sentence)

With this type of adverbial, which can usually be placed in different positions in a sentence, I would be much more likely to consider sense, and the effect I wanted to create. 

In short sentences, or those where I wanted to develop some pace, I would be less likely to use a comma since these do cause the reader to pause mentally (or physically if they are reading aloud).  We should avoid telling children that punctuation makes the reader ‘take a breath’: the reader is very capable of controlling their own breathing, especially if reading silently! However, pausing at the grammatical boundaries in a sentence does give the reader chance to consider what has gone before, take in the meaning, and prepare for the next piece of information.

Consider the following examples.  The sense is clear and I would prefer to build the pace so have not used commas.  

• That night I tried again.
• Suddenly it started.
• Hurriedly they darted under a rock.

Now compare these two similar structures. What difference does the punctuation make?

• Explosively the fiery lava spurted from the mouth of the volcano.
• Gradually, the viscous, black oil dripped from the pipe.

I would also use a comma if my opening adverbial was lengthy. (David Crystal discusses the issue of use of commas with longer grammatical structures in his book: Making a point, for anyone interested in further reading.)  With short term memory being what it is, slowing the reader down can give time for the information to be processed:

• In the silent darkness of the gloomy forest, the red-cloaked child felt nervous.
• Because of the clear tones of her voice and the beauty of the melody, the audience gave her a standing ovation.

Of course, if the fronted adverbial is a subordinate clause, I would use a comma to demarcate the boundary:

• Since she was a child, Sophie had wanted to work with horses.
• Climbing to the top, he had a clear view of the surrounding countryside.

Conjuncts (adverbials with a cohesive function)

With most of these adverbials, I would use commas to separate them from the rest of the sentence.  Conjuncts are used to help the text flow and are therefore on the periphery of the sentence.  They are usually placed at or near the beginning of the sentence, so that the reader can use this early information to link to what has happened in the previous sentences or paragraph:

• Furthermore, animals do not have as much room to move in captivity.
• Later that afternoon, he left the house and wandered through the streets again.
• In the meantime, she would practise making cakes.
• The prince was, however, not ready for the responsibility of ruling the kingdom.

With some conjuncts though, especially in short sentences, I might omit the comma, e.g.

• Finally they arrived.

Disjuncts (adverbials conveying the writer’s attitude)

I would use commas to separate these adverbial words, phrases or clauses from the remainder of the information in the sentence, since they are not integral to the sentence, but purely convey the writer’s feelings.  It seems right to me to help the reader distinguish the main message from the writer's feelings, beliefs and opinions.  For example:

• Frankly, he is unlikely to remain a politician.
• Seriously, I heard them say so on the radio.
• To be precise, not all the details are available.
• With regret, we will not be able to attend.
• If I can be direct, I don’t agree.

However, once again I think that I might omit the comma if the sentence is very short and the disjunct is a single word.  Consider the structures below.  Does the reader really need the benefit of a comma here?

• Obviously I care!
• Clearly it's not.

In the grammar and punctuation tests, children are likely to be required to identify a fronted adverbial punctuated with a comma as the correct option.  I just hope the people setting these tests choose examples where there is no doubt a comma is required for sense and effect.  If that is the case, we can teach children to write well, using adverbials and commas to aid sense and effect, rather than requiring them to punctuate every single fronted adverbial in order to pass a test!

Prepositions: the difference between 'into/in to' and 'onto/on to'

I've recently been asked about why these prepositions are sometimes written as one word and other times are separated.

In, into, on and onto are all prepositions.  We usually use 'in' and 'on' to give information about position of the subject in relation to something else.  For example:

• He splashed in the puddles.
• She stood on the wall.

The prepositions 'into' and 'onto' are usually used to indicate direction, movement or transformation:

• He raced into the lead.
• She climbed onto the wall. 
• She turned him into a frog.

Sometimes either preposition can be used grammatically in a sentence.  However, consider the difference in meaning in the following sentences:

• The boy jumped in the pool.
• The boy jumped into the pool. 

Although both constructions are possible, there is a subtle difference between them.  In the first, the boy is in the pool and jumping around; in the second, he starts out of the pool and the direction of the jump means he ends up in the pool.  It is the semantics which must be considered when deciding which preposition to use.

A further complication arises when the verb in a sentence is a phrasal or prepositional verb.  Many verbs are constructed by using a verb and a preposition: hand in, turn in, give in, build on, rely on, etc.  When these are followed by 'to', we really need to think about the sense we are creating for the reader.  Joining the final preposition of the verb phrase to what follows may change the meaning altogether if care is not taken.  Consider the following sentences:

• My homework should be handed in to my teacher by Thursday.
• My homework should be handed into my teacher by Thursday.  (Not possible - the adverbial phrase 'to my teacher' cannot be joined to the 'in'.)

• We need to turn ourselves in to the police. 
• We need to turn ourselves into the police. 

• I'll give in to keep the peace.  (Correct as the 'to' starts an infinitive verb structure and non-finite clause)
• I'll give into keep the peace.  (Not possible)

• Her success can be built on to ensure her future. (Correct - the non-finite clause 'to ensure her future' has to be separate.)
• Her success can be built onto ensure her future.  (Not possible)

• His father could be relied on to keep him safe. (Correct - the non-finite clause must be separate.)
• His father could be relied onto keep him safe. (Not possible).

We can see from the above examples that we have to consider firstly whether the 'to' that follows the verb is acting as a preposition or the start of an infinitive verb structure.  Once we have decided that the 'to' is acting as a preposition, we need to consider whether we want to indicate direction, movement or transformation.  If so, then 'into' or 'onto' will be appropriate prepositions to use.

Developing KS2 sentence level writing using 'The Ice Bear' by Jackie Morris

This version of an Inuit myth is another beautiful book by Jackie Morris.  As always, her illustrations are stunning and the story is captivating; however, as a teaching and learning text, it can be used in many different ways.  The rich language will help children improve their description and widen their vocabulary, the story provides opportunities for book talk on many different levels  and the variation in sentence structures make this a valuable text for developing different aspects of writing, dependent on the children’s needs.

Below are some of the grammatical elements you could teach from this book, together with the relevant Sentence Toolkit tools which you can use with these.  Under each element, I have listed a few examples from the text.  Which element you choose to teach will depend on what aspect of writing you want the children to develop, based on their identified next steps.

Expanded noun phrases which provide wonderful description  (Sentence Toolkit: tape measure)

There are many examples in this text of noun phrases using pre-modification only (where the main noun is in final position in the phrase).

• his bone-tipped spear
• thin powder snow
• her golden white fur

The text is very rich in expanded noun phrases which are post-modified with prepositional phrases.  I have emboldened the main verb in the following examples:

• the scent of snow
• a pale shard of shining light
• the smooth beads of amber
• a hiss of hot breath

There are also examples of noun phrases expanded with relative clauses.  Some of these are introduced by the relative pronoun; however in some examples the relative pronoun is elided and the clause starts with a past participle. 

• the great white bear who had held them close in the blue ice cave (relative pronoun ‘who’)
• the place where the boy had sunk to his knees (relative pronoun ‘where’)
• the bear that had taken the life of his child (relative pronoun ‘that’)
• a bundle wrapped in a scrap of white fur (the main noun ‘bundle’ is post-modified by a subordinate structure ‘wrapped in a scrap of white fur’.  This non-finite past participle is in relative clause position and could have been written ‘which was wrapped …’)
• fingers, clawed by the cold (the subordinate relative clause could have been written ‘which were clawed by the cold’)

Similes (Sentence Toolkit: medium size paintbrush)

• like a raven’s wing
• like a fragment of fire

Adverbial phrases of where, how and when  (Sentence Toolkit: saw)

• high into the darkness of winter, over the frozen sea (this could be considered as 3 where adverbials together: high, into the darkness of winter, over the frozen sea)
• on the hard-packed snow (where)
• over his footprints (where)
• with a mittened hand (how)
• like a flame on the cold white (how)
• in the beginning of time (when)
• in the dark months (when)

Compound sentences  (Sentence Toolkit: glue gun)

Compound sentences in this text vary the sentence structures used and create different effects.  For example, the first sentence of the book is a compound structure which links two main points, both of equal importance:

• In the beginning of time people and animals lived together on the earth and there was no difference between them.

Other compound sentences vary pace or build tension in the text:

• The storm came in fast but his dogs moved faster. 
• She dropped the treasure and it lay like a flame on the cold white.  The boy moved to take it, and in flew the bird. 
• He walked over ice ridges and down into valleys. 
• The cold clung to him, it gnawed at him and fear began to suck at his bones. (a list of main clauses in a compound structure)

Subordinate clauses.  There are examples in this text of the four subordinate structures used to create complex sentences (underlined).  (Sentence Toolkit: all four spanners and also the comma screwdriver where the subordinate clause starts the sentence)  

• Into this world they were born, in the dark months, when the cold and the wind turned water to stone. 
• As he reached out a hand to the biggest of the bears(,) the amber treasure fell to the snow.  (Although authors do not always punctuate according to the convention we are teaching in schools, children should learn to use a comma when the sentence starts with a subordinate clause.) 
• As he stooped to pick up the brightest and best, in flew the raven and snatched it away. (As with many of the sentences in this book, sentence structures are complicated with a mix of compound and complex.  I would be using these with more able writers to vary their compositions.)
•  Maddened by grief(,) he followed the trail of the running bears, a river of paw prints on the frozen sea. (The subordinate clause starts the sentence and is introduced by the non-finite past participle.  Again when innovating sentences like these, children will need to demarcate the clause boundary with a comma where the subordinate clause starts the sentence.) 
• He followed the trail, picking up each shining piece, cupping them in his mittens. (2 subordinate clauses introduced by the non-finite present participle.)
•  She held them close to keep them warm in the blue ice cave that was their world. (Infinitive used to introduce subordinate clause.)

     With level 5 and 6 writers I would also use this text to explore the way authors use structures that are not complete sentences to create effects.  Although the phrases used have a capital letter at the start and a full stop at the end, unless they have a finite verb, they are not complete sentences in English.  However, many examples can be found that ‘break the rule’ and Jackie Morris uses these to great effect.

• So small.  (Adjective phrase)
• His last hunt before true winter.  (Expanded noun phrase)
• Two eyes, black as midwinter. (Expanded noun phrase)
• Dark hair like a raven’s wing. (Expanded noun phrase)
• Two hands, fingers clawed by the cold. (Expanded noun phrase)
• A child. (Noun phrase)
• A piece of amber, smoothed by the oceans, coloured, clear and beautiful, like a fragment of fire, washed ashore from a far-off place.  (Amber is the main noun and this is post-modified by the three relative clauses starting with past participles ‘smoothed’, ‘coloured’ and ‘washed’.  Although these three verbs are used, since they are non-finite, there is no main clause and the whole structure is an expanded noun phrase.  With support, more able writers will be able to see the pattern of participles and use this structure themselves with an element of understanding about how it is formed.  Others will be able to imitate the pattern.)

To see other texts recommended on this blog, click here.  And for more Texts that Teach, check out this link.

Tell Me A Dragon: teaching sentence structures through a great text

Tell Me A Dragon, by Jackie Morris, is a beautiful book.  It has the most wonderful illustrations, which will both support and motivate children to write more descriptively, and the structure of the sentences on each page provide children with models for writing which they can imitate or innovate. 

How you use the text will depend on the year group you are teaching and the grammatical features you have identified for development with your pupils.   I've provided a few examples from the text for each grammatical element, together with the relevant Sentence Toolkit tools which you could use with these.  Once children have understood how to use the structure and had fun with writing their own examples, they could perhaps produce a class or group book, writing sentences to describe their own dragons.

Noun phrases which provide beautiful description, using both pre- and post-modification of the noun  (Sentence Toolkit: tape measure)

• the silver moon-path,  (premodification only)
• the secret music of the wind (postmodified with prepositional phrase)
• whisper-thin wings of rainbow-hues (wings are pre-modified with 'whisper-thin' and post-modified with 'of rainbow hues')

Adjectival phrases (Sentence Toolkit: large paint brush)

•  snaggle-toothed, fierce and brave
• jade-winged and amber-eyed with a tail as long as a river (the adjectival phrases is extended by adding a prepositional phrase introduced by 'with'.  Within this prepositional phrase, the noun phrase 'a tail' is also post-modified with a simile.  The children don't need to analyse the structure in a technical way, but the model is fantastic for imitating and innovating.  E.g. My dragon is steely-scaled and stony-eyed with spikes as hard as granite.)  

  Similes (Sentence Toolkit: medium size paintbrush)

• as big as a village
• as long as a river

Simple adverbial phrases of where and when, suitable as models for writers beginning to use adverbials (Sentence Toolkit: saw)

• across the sky
• in the waves
• all day
• from far away and long ago
• around my pillow
• into my dreams

Subordinate clauses.  There are two subordinate structures I would use this text for.  (Sentence Toolkit: spanners - the conjunction spanner and the -ed spanner - and also the comma screwdriver) 

If I were developing subordination of time (Year 2), the model  I would use would be:

• When she laughs, petals ride on her breath. 

 Introducing the use of 'when' to start the sentence, will lead to the children automatically creating subordinate structures.  Alongside this, you and the class should note how the comma has been used to separate the two parts (clauses, but you wouldn't be using that term in Year 2 necessarily) of the sentence.  Children could think of other things their dragon might do, e.g. When he snarls, When she flies, and go on to complete the sentence with a main clause.

If I were developing other ways of creating complex sentences, in order to vary sentence structure, I would use the  model below.  I would use this with Year 5 and 6 pupils who were already using conjunctions for subordinate clauses:

• Curled around my ear, my dragon sings sweet songs and tells me strange stories from far away and long ago.
• Curled around my pillow...

This structure uses a past participle followed by a prepositional phrase to introduce the subordinate clause.  Children could use this pattern to develop their own dragon sentences.  Where else could the dragon be curled?  Around my arm, neck, shoulder? What other verbs could be used here?  Children could brainstorm their own past participles: wrapped (around my arm), rested (on my shoulder), draped (over my shoulder), hidden (under my hat).  Have some fun with it and get children used to the structure.  Even if they don't know the terminology, they will be able to start sentences with the pattern and will, therefore, be varying their construction of complex sentences.

Punctuation (Sentence Toolkit: screwdrivers, hyphens)
The text provides good models of punctuation, in particular use of commas to mark phrases and clauses and hyphens to create compound constructions to modify/describe nouns.  For example: snaggle-toothed, jade-winged, amber-eyed, sea-dragon, ice-dragon.

To see other texts recommended on this blog, click here.  And for more Texts that Teach, check out this link.

Prepositions and prepositional phrases

I notice from my Feedjit link that many foreign visitors are finding this blog by searching for 'prepositions' or 'prepositional phrases'.  I hope the information you find here is useful, but if there are any specific queries you have, leave a comment and I'll try and help!

Prepositional List Poem

After I put up the last post (Prepositional Phrases, 7th May) I started thinking about ways to create prepositional phrases with children.  The prepositions indicating 'where' are the easiest to start with and I thought it would be fun to try a list poem about their journey to school, or another favourite destination that they know well.  The idea really is to help them understand that a prepositional phrase can be created by starting with a preposition and then adding a noun or noun phrase.  Once children know how to create 'where' prepositional phrases, they can develop their use in the adverbial positions in sentences, to give readers information about where the 'action' is taking place.

Preposition - Year 3 terminology in the proposed new curriculum

Provide an example of prepositions (this would be a useful addition to your literacy working walls) and discuss what they mean.  Elicit that they can be used to say where things are. 

Ask the children to make a list of the things they see on their journey and explain these are the nouns (or noun phrases if more than one word is used, e.g. the church).

Model putting a preposition with a noun/noun phrase and discuss how it informs the reader where you are while you are walking or driving.

Children can then experiment with creating their own prepositional phrases and writing each one on a strip of paper.  You could order these, with children holding their phrase, so that a poem is created physically around the classroom.  Children could re-order themselves to create different effects in their poem.

After this practical experience, children could develop their own poem, either listing phrases sequentially along their route to school, on a school trip, or creating an imaginary route.  The latter would give chance for their phrases to be ordered to create some rhythm or rhyme in their poem.

Here's my example of a sequential journey.  Not finely crafted, but it gives the idea!

My journey to work

Down the lane,

Across the bridge,

Along the road,

Into the village.

Through the lights,

Past the church,

At the roundabout,

Out of the village.

Up the hill,

Under branches of trees,

Over the top

on Woodbury Common.

Between farm shop and fields

Beyond pubs, parks and houses,

Exeter!

One more idea!  As the journey is sequential, it acts like a map and children could fairly easily learn this for performance.  Different ways of performing it could also give opportunity for communicating speed of the journey to listeners.

Prepositional phrases

Prepositional phrases are usually formed by a preposition, followed by a noun or noun phrase.  Although they often indicate place or direction, they can also indicate, amongst other things, time, the manner in which an action is performed, to express 'having' or attributes, purpose and as agent after the passive.

Time: on the 5th May, at midnight, within a few days, since, for 3 days.
Manner: by car, with kindness, like a mad dog.
Attributes: with the red hair, without shame, of intelligence.
Purpose: because of the floods, as a result of the sun, from tiredness,for a reason, out of kindness.
Agent: by the burglar, with a baseball bat.

Prepositional phrases which express 'having'/attributes are often used to modify nouns.  They occur after the main noun, so 'post-modify' it, but are still part of the noun phrase.

The boy in the bright yellow jumper...      waved excitedly.


 Although 'boy' is the main noun being talked about, the information contained in the prepositional phrase post-modifies the noun and the whole phrase could be replaced with the pronoun 'He'.  It is useful to know this when assessing children's writing: if 'The boy' was considered as the noun phrase, there isn't much expansion, but 'The boy in the bright yellow jumper' shows a lot more noun phrase expansion.

Prepositional phrases can also be used to complement adjectives or adjectival phrases:

• The politician was sorry for his comments.
• The girl was delighted with her shiny, new bike. 

A phrase using the preposition 'than' can also qualify adjectives and enable a comparison, for example, 'The hare was quicker than the tortoise.'